The Success Of The American Revolution - 881 Words

The years 1776 and 1789 were two pivotal years for oppressed citizens. In America, the citizens were fed up with the totalitarian monarchy of England who continuously taxed them. The American colonies wanted their freedom from England because they no longer had a say in England’s government, but were still forced to follow its laws. Thomas Jefferson, the head of the committee to later drafted America’s demand for freedom, went so far as to call England an â€Å"absolute tyranny.† Americans knew their break from England would lead to a war—the American Revolution—but continued to up rise. This lead to many revolts and finally concluded with the creation of The Declaration of Independence in 1776. Likewise, in France, the citizens were also being subjugated by the French government. The French people had been through many years of a â€Å"deteriorate[ing] economy, poor harvest, and pressure from the Nobility,† and quite frankly had had enough. The French economy was in an immense debt from helping the Americans win their freedom from England, and now Louis XVI was heavily taxing the people. To make matter worse, the past year’s harvest had been a failure resulting in famine and even more aggravated citizens. The third estate—made up by the peasants—formed the National Assembly because they believed that their political ignorance was why bad things kept happening. Therefore, in 1789, the French people drafted The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen to rid their oppressors.Show MoreRelatedThe Success Of The American Revolution1633 Words   |  7 PagesVolumes of scholastic literature, circulated history books, and an array of multiple sourc es acknowledge Frances’ contributory role in the success of the American Revolution. Prior to discussing their role in the American Revolution, it is important to mention their historical past in the colonies in order to understand why they intervened on behalf of the continentals. Frances’ historical past in the 13 colonies is filled with humiliation and resentment due to their defeat against Great BritainRead MoreThe Success Of The American Revolution1304 Words   |  6 PagesAmerican Revolution not only created freedom but also created technological geniuses. The American Revolution was a time period of warfare, for independence between Britain and the thirteen colonies, but it was also the breakthrough for technological advancements that would change American’s life forever. After every war, the development of a country increases. As for the American Revolution, Benjamin Franklin influenced and created a huge contribution in his politics, scientifical resea rch, andRead MoreThe Success Of The American Revolution1140 Words   |  5 PagesFrom the beginning of time all organisms have been completing and it has been survival of the fittest. From the founding of Jamestown, Britain was evolving to survive as an empire by establishing colonies that were abused. This lead to The American Revolution which was inevitably arisen from three major problems: power, glory, and greed. These problems were express through many methods such as taxation, war and laws. Since 1660 British Parliament had controlled continental trade and taxes inRead MoreThe Success Of The American Revolution1328 Words   |  6 Pagesthirteen American colonies wanted to be free from rule by Great Britain. Freedom would make it possible to create a new kind of government without a king. In the democracy envisioned by the country s earliest leaders, Americans would govern themselves based on certain principles or ideals. Few people at the time thought that the American Revolution would succeed and the Americans could win a war against the world s greatest empire. At the beginning of the war, there was no regular American army,Read MoreAmerican Militia Success During The American Revolution1383 Words   |  6 PagesJoe Taglienti 11/4/15 Hague Senior Seminar The American Militia Success during the American Revolution The American Revolution marked the beginning of a new era for America, independence from Great Britain. The greatest military power in the world at the time had lost control of one of her most wealthy and rewarding colonies. However, a question arises to who won the war for the colonies? George Washington was the leader of the Continental Army during the war and was mildly successful. However itRead MoreIndustrialization Of The Second Industrial Revolution1390 Words   |  6 PagesThe Second Industrial Revolution, which reached its peak during 1870 to 1914, marked a significant turning point in American history. Before this era of progression and industrial excellence, America was on the verge of expansion like never before. From the vast amounts of land gained through the Annexation of Texas in 1845, the British retreating from Oregon in 1846, and the Mexican cession of Southwest territory guaranteed by the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo of 1848, (Engelman) America was ableRead MoreRe volution Dbq1112 Words   |  5 PagesThe Revolution was affected before the war commenced.   The Revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people...This radical change in the principles, sentiments, and affections of the people was the real American Revolution.   Explain the meaning of this 1818 statement by John Adams (referring to the Revolutionary era) and assess its validity. Philosophical words, Once Again In a letter to Hezekiah Niles on February 3rd of 1818 John Adams, once again, spoke his mighty, philosophical wordsRead MoreComparing the French Revolution and the American Revolution Essay example857 Words   |  4 Pages The French and American revolutions are both very significant in the world’s history. The American Revolution happened first, around the last half of the 18th century where the Thirteen Colonies became the United States of America, and gained independence from the British Empire. The French revolution on the other hand, was from 1789 until the turn of the century 1799. For the French people this was a period of political and social turmoil. The idea of Enlightenment stuck a large populationRead MoreHistory : The American Revolution Essay1435 Words   |  6 Pagesmoral quality, which was strongly held in the people’s hearts in America, and it consequently spread to other countries in the world. It is believed that American Revolution wa s the most important chapter in human history just because it was their action that made the ideals of liberty, equality, and justice to materialize. The American Revolution had a very big significance worldwide as it changed the world not by removing and altering of power in any of the states but by the appearance of the newRead MoreHistory : The American Revolution1442 Words   |  6 Pagesmoral quality, which was strongly held in the people’s hearts in America, and it consequently spread to other countries in the world. It is believed that American Revolution was the most important chapter in human history just because it was their action that made the ideals of liberty, equality, and justice to materialize. The American Revolution had a very big significance worldwide as it changed the world not by removing and altering of power in any of the states but by the appearance of the new

John Adams Property and the Right to Vote - 1049 Words

In May 1776[[[,]]] the highly ranked political philosopher John Adams wrote a letter to John Sullivan expressing the republican idea that property should be a prerequisite for the exercise of the right to vote. John Adams was a disciplined scholar that gained knowledge of government and law through his attendance at Harvard University at the age of sixteen. In 1758 he became a recognized able lawyer in Braintree, Massachusetts where he was born. Adams became very involved in government decisions and drew up a set of resolutions protesting the Stamp Act of 1764. He insisted that the act was not binding on the colonies because they were not represented in Britain s Parliament and had not consented to the tax levy. From this John Adams†¦show more content†¦John Adams is a very reliable political figure of history. We can see that he was a very smart man of his time. His letter illustrates history and the lack of the rights of the citizens. He was a man that would stand up in the middle of controversy and has helped shape the foundation of American history. He reacted to any situation he objected to by standing up and enforcing changes. He believed that property owners having the right to vote would be the best decision for the colony. He only desired what he believed was best at the time[[[ok]]]. At this time Britain was one of John Adams biggest opponents. He fought many of the British acts and resisted their rule. The British wanted full control and Adams along with others did not allow that. When the revolution began he was one of the first people to propose American independence. He became the Vice President for George Washington and then became the second President of the United States. His views were similar to other important political figures of his time such as John Jay and Benjamin Franklin.[[[ok]]] Together they negotiated the treaty that ended the American Revolution. John Adams has left his signature in history. He spent the last twenty-five years of his life on his farm in Massachusetts. He no longer participated in politics but remained interested. The American people came to appreciate his integrity and patriotism to America. He died on July 4,Show MoreRelatedDefinition Of Deference On White Males1104 Words   |  5 PagesWhat had most states imposed on white adult males by 1821, how was voting conducted @ this time? Most states imposed property and taxpaying requirements on the white adult males who alone had the vote, and they conducted voting by voice. 3. How were presidential electors chosen? Presidential electors were chosen by state legislatures. 4. What percentage of adult white males votes in 1820? Less than 30 percent of adult white males voted in 1820. 5. Describe the revolution that took place in AmericanRead MoreThe Contributions Of The Jacksonian Era1217 Words   |  5 Pagesmodern president. I agree that the Jacksonian Era was a pivotal period in American History when the role of the Federal Government and the President were redefined. Many changes occurred during the Jacksonian Era like the issue of slavery, women’s rights, multiple reforms, the many panics the United States went through and voting reforms occurred. During the Jacksonian Era the numbers of free slaves grew rapidly, many of them began to become free but they still lacked the equality they deservedRead MoreWomen s Rights During Colonial Times Essay1325 Words   |  6 PagesArgue For Their Rights During Colonial Times In July of 1776, the Declaration of Independence was signed with the idea that all men were created equal. However, â€Å"all men† seemed to only to apply to white males, since women were not granted many of the promises articulated in the Declaration of Independence. In response, Judith Sargent Murray and Abigail Adams demanded equality through their writings, On the Equality of the Sexes and the 1776 correspondence between Abigail and John Adams. Through theirRead MoreWomens Rights: Before and After the American Revolution1697 Words   |  7 PagesWomen’s Rights: Before and After the American Revolution The American Revolution played a significant role in lives of nearly every person in America. Most men left their wives, mothers, sisters and daughters in charge of farms and businesses when they left to fight in the Patriot armies. There were many men, who had no farms or businesses, left their women with absolutely nothing to fall back on. This led to a significant increase in the population of impoverished women in several citiesRead MoreAbigail Adams’ Inspiring Rebellion for Women’s Rights Essay1425 Words   |  6 Pagesmother’s father, John Quincy, was a member of the colonial Governor’s council and colonel of the militia. He was also the Speaker of the Massachusetts Assembly, a post he held for 40 years until her death at age 77.3 His interest in government and his career in public service influenced her greatly, her grandfather died three years into her marriage to John Adams. Married at the age of 22, Abigail and her new husband, John Adams, settled on a farm in Braintree, Massachusetts. John Adams was a recentRead MoreThe Battle For Women s Equal Rights1040 Words   |  5 PagesSince before the Bill of Rights were even completely formed, women were wanting the same rights as men. John Adams wife, Abigail, told him that she wanted womens rights in the amendments (Carr, 2015). The battle for women s equal rights heightened during 1848-1920 when women, lead mostly by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, wanted the right to vote (Woman’s Rights Movement, n.d.). When women finally got the right to vote, the whole women s movement went down, but never fully went awayRead MoreThe Struggle For Women s Rights850 Words   |  4 Pagesto gain some type of rights or freedoms. In 1775, the American Revolutionary War was fought for independence; In 1865, the American Civil War was fought to end slavery. Although no wars were fought, many battles were waged for women s rights. The struggle for women s rights begin in the mid-late 1800s at a time when women were not allowed to vote or own property. Women, as with African-Americans, during this period were not recognized as having any legal and political rights as men and whites, respectivelyRead MoreThe Original Riot Grrrls By Elizabeth Cady Stanton1385 Words   |  6 Pages The Original Riot Grrrls The 19th Amendment guarantees a vote for women in the United States of America, but how did this constitutional change happen? Many females prior to this accomplishment faced struggles from external forces that denied their rights and capabilities. Feminism and equal rights were and still are prominent in American society. In order to provide women of the future what is rightfully theirs, women during the 1700s have taken control of their opinions and used their strong-willRead MoreThe Causes Of The American Revolution1137 Words   |  5 Pagesbecame very distressful due to the discrimination they had to experience. The colonist had enough with the taxation, and because the British mistreated them, they decided to fight to be free from England. Other factors also motivated them for their rights and freedom for instance, â€Å"common sense† pamphlets that Thomas Paine created. My father also got motivated by the Pamphlet â€Å"Common Sense† which challenged the Great B ritain to provide the colonist their freedom. From September 5 to October 26, 1774Read MoreDemocracy : A Country Of A Phenomenal Government Essay1608 Words   |  7 Pagesnation. The facade of democracy circulating throughout America’s blood began immediately after the last quill stroke of John Hancock’s bold signature on the document that established an independent nation. In opposition to Great Britain’s rule, the Declaration of Independence strategically and deliberately stated that if the government failed to preserve the inviolable rights of â€Å"life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness† that people had the authority to overthrow and institute a new government

National Institute of Labour Educations Discussion †MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the National Institute of Labour Educations Discussion. Answer: Introduction: Unemployment has become a scourge in most countries at every level of economic development.it is known to bring about poverty and a feeling of exclusion from the ways of life.it brings down or slow the development of young people and end up bringing conflict into homes. Most market economies face some issues of unemployment which come up from the active birth, the growth and the reduced death rates and the decline of industries and the changes that are taking place in the employment sectors. Others like the frictional unemployment are reported to be tolerable. Unemployment damages an individual together with his or her family given that it persists for an extended period (Bell, 2012 pg.98). The economy of Australia has faced numerous changes in the line-up of what it produces and the way it produces it. The change in technology has perpetuated the latter: through more integration to the global markets and the rise in competition from the countries who offer lower wages in the manufacture of goods and services, changes in the patterns of consumer purchase with the increase in the real incomes (Corden, 2011pg.162). The loss of jobs in the manufacture of goods and services has led to the deterioration of employment opportunities for those workers who have a modest level of education. The latter is well depicted by the statistics of unemployment.it is also evident in the rates of withdrawal from the workforce by such kind of workers. Contrary to this, the larger part of the economy has been noted to be expanding chances of employment for the female labor force and whose share of payments has been increasing very fast. From the point of view, the issue of unemployment in Aus tralia has been a nagging one and has been the problem of the country for quite an extended period. However, a commendable expansion in the economy which has lasted for thirteen years has seen the reduction in the unemployment issue. The profits of reduction of unemployment are seen even in areas that are most problematic like the unemployment rates in the youth, the prolonged unemployment and the poor employment opportunities available for the older adults (Bell, 2012 pg.112). The concept of Unemployment is not as precise as viewed by most people. This is evident in countries like Australia, a country in which most goods and services are produced by the use of the formal economy, and in most cases, people here work for wages (Harris, 2013 pg.199).The country adopts the international naming or definition of the term unemployment: unemployment occurs if a person or people were not in work for at least an hour in the previous week or they were looking for a job and fortunately were able to agree to undertake an individual job the following week if it would be available. When asked whether they worked the previous week, those people who work in a black economy have a higher chance of telling a lie. Those who want a job but have given up in looking for jobs are excluded from the measure of unemployment. The latter then gives the government an advantage in measuring the level of unemployment through the provision of a minute welfare payment that at long run kick s people out of the workforce. A person is hence counted as employment if he or she worked for at least an hour in the previous week. A big difference comes in between working one hour and forty hours per week since there is a difference between the income and effort put. A report shows that the Australian Bureau has constructed measures to curb unemployment as well as under employment (Harris, 2013 pg.171). After the world war 11, the rate of unemployment in Australia varied between one and two percent of the labor force. A Bigger percentage of the workers were men, and the culture was that women were not supposed to seek for employment lest they were married. There was a high level of birth rate (baby boom), a period that gave birth to a fertility rate in Australia that up to date has never been replaced. The diagram below shows the history of unemployment in Australia (Marks Fleming, 2012 pg.198). As shown in the diagram, the rate of unemployment goes up very sharply during the period of recession. It takes a relatively long time to do own after the spell. Thou there rose a small peak in early 2000`s; the latter was only a fraction of the previous points. The last point shown is the most significant one that can be used to explain the low level of unemployment. The reason as to why Australia has seen success in the avoidance of recession which is part of the business cycle will be tacked in another point of explanation. The latter has made the rate of unemployment to go down even below the high levels reached during the peak season (Marks Fleming, 2012 pg.188).Today the concern of the businesses in Australia is the shortage of skilled labor. Back in the year 2005, firms recorded lack of skilled labor in large numbers.55% of these companies explained that they failed to expand their businesses due to the shortage of labor. The latter information was as a result of a survey that was carried out by the national bank of Australia. The figure shown below shows the primary factor that made firm s to shift from the lack of sales to lack of suitable labor (Picardie, 2013 pg. 145). There is no uniform distribution of unemployment across the labor force. Some of the groups are at a higher risk of being unemployed (Picardie, 2013 pg. 132). Gender and the peoples marital status Focusing on the age group 25-65 years, there is some different experience of the men and women looking for jobs. The level of unemployment is assumed to be similar in both males and females. In both sexes, the single people are more likely to be unemployed than the married population in both genders (Shan, 2011 pg. 182). Less than 3% of the married couples were unemployed. The unemployment rate for the single people was four times more than that of the married people. The reasons for the correlation between the married and the single were complex, and the causes have a possibility of going in both ways. For instance, men who are not yet married are less attractive and hence have a higher probability of being single. Those who are single in turn o not have the pressure to earn to provide support to their families and hence can prefer to tolerate the long spell of unemployment. Extended periods of unemployment in marriage can also lead to couples breaking up (Picardie, 2013 pg. 132). Adding to those people who are single, there are other groups of people that experience higher levels of unemployment .two of these groups include the youth and the old people. Any given group entering the job market takes some time before settling in a given pattern of employment. Many people try out jobs then after some time, they leave it because it does not fit their preferences. They then continue searching for the one that suits their abilities and ambitions, and this is the time that they experience short terms of unemployment (Parkin, 2014 pg. 100). A bigger number of this kind of people are not successful in the search. They face extended periods of unemployment while others move between low paying jobs, insecure employment and others remain unemployed. The employers tend taking young people on a temporary basis as they establish whether they are suitable for the jobs offered. If at all the company finds out that the youth employed is not fit for the job, then they lay them down, and they hence have to start looking for a new job hence spending time unemployed in the meantime. The kind of unemployment that is associated with this search is not problematic given that the job seeker can find the kind of a job he or she is seeking within a given period (Parkin, 2014 pg. 112). The measures of the unemployment in youth are complicated since in Australia there is no pathway to differentiate between full-time students to a full-time worker. The youth combine education and job in a variety of ways. Most of the teenage students and also the full-time tertiary students have at least a part time job. An approximate of one million adults who work at the full time are also students. The young people try different categories of post school learning as they also give a hand in the various kinds of jobs. Few teenagers look for full-time jobs (Shan, 2011 pg. 112).The reason for the latter is because such kind of jobs are rare to find even in a case where the labor market is tight.an approximate of 20% of the young people who are looking for full-time jobs are unemployed. The figure seems to be high, but in the real sense, it has fallen from peak since the last recession of 1992 in Australia read 32%.the strengthening of the labour market, in general, has helped the you th a lot as well as those other groups existing in the labor force. The 4th figure below shows the benefits that have directly flowed to the youth. The fall in unemployment of the older people has also decreased significantly in that by the year 2005, only 2% of the older adults who were aged 55-65 were not employed. The decline in the rate of unemployment for the older people gave rise to the turnout for this kind of a group (Healey, 2013 pg. 123). The second group that is facing a massive rate of unemployment is the migrants. The migrants face additional problems whose primary cause is the lack of fluency in English, lack of them being familiar with the English culture and the fact that their skills are not automatically accepted by the employers (Healey, 2013 pg. 163). The Australian government runs an immigration program that has three main components. They include: the skilled migrants, who are selected because of their ease of integration with the Australian labour market: reunion of the family whereby a person is given sponsorship by a parent who I already a permanent resident of Australia and the third one is the humanitarian whereby a given immigrant is accepted on the grounds of clemency. There has been a shift in the balance and shift towards the migrants who are skilled (Healey, 2013 pg. 163).For a migrant to be granted the residency that is permanent, an application that shows a combination of attributes that are known to be important in the search for a job and mostly the kind of jobs that are capable of using their skills after they arrive in Australia. These types of attributes include the post educational qualifications, given recognition in Australia, an experience in a particular kind of a job which is in high demand in Australia an d age that is prime working. Data collected in 2005 showed that the migrants who met these qualifications were quickly absolved in the labor market. Six months after their arrival, an approximate of 82% of the immigrants were employed while about 12% were still tarmacking (Gregory Hunter, 2012 pg. 137). The recent record of under employment in Australia is presumably useful, however, to be termed as employed, we said that a person should have worked for at least one hour in the previous week. A person can only be unemployed if they are in the workforce and are actively looking for jobs but are not getting them. The latter suggests that it is possible to have low rates of unemployment and yet at the same time have a higher number of people who want to work more than the way they do (Gregory Hunter, 2012 pg. 156). Rate of participation One of the major perspectives on whether Australia has been experiencing an underemployment is the rate of participation-those people who are aged 1 and above and are seriously looking for jobs or employed. There have been numerous changes in the participation rate in the labor force in India. The rate of participation in male fell from 755 to 65 % between the years 1990 to 2005. While that for women increase from 40% to 52%.the reduction in the participation rate for men was more evident to those under the age of 55 and who had some low levels of education (Gregory Hunter, 2012 pg. 143).The figure below shows the changes in the participation rate since the year 1991.The rate of involvement fairs a positive shift in the demand for labor. The demand for labor is increasing while the rate of unemployment is going down (Corden, 2011pg.162).The rate of participation is also rising and vice versa. The latter is very important since it shows that there is the creation of some new jobs. The new jobs are filled by those who were previously laid off or by those who entered the job market recently. The rate of withdrawal in the labor market is decelerated when the demand for labor is great (Richardson, 2011 pg. 198). Long term unemployment This is one of the aspects of employment that is in most times disturbing. It goes for 12 months in Australia. The long term unemployment causes economic and social damages by a significant extent. There is exhaustion in savings and the lines of credit too. Evidence shows that the longer a person stays unemployed, the lower the chances of getting employed in the future becomes (Richardson, 2011 pg. 171). Conclusion The issue of unemployment has been a tormentor in the economy of Australia and the western to be precise since early 1970s.the business cycle of boom and recession in the markets for a long time was the causative agent of the high levels of unemployment in those years. The rates of unemployment shot up during the periods when we had recessions because most businesses shrunk and reconstructed. The recovery from these shocks took an extended period and by the time it came to an end, another period of recession was already with us.in the last decade, Australia has been fortunate in avoiding any significant downturn, something that has seen a fall in the rate of underemployment and unemployment .the drop in unemployment rate has benefited almost every group in the labour force ranging from the youth, the long term unemployed and the older workers. There is a possibility of keeping the economy growing at the high levels of usage, without the stirring of the inflation dragon from its chloroformed slumber, the men having low education, the youth and part time workers need to expect to find reasons for being optimistic about the future. Work cited Bell, S. ed., 2012. The Joblessness Predicament in Australia: Cambridge University Press. Corden, W.M., 2011. Salaries and unemployment in Australia. Economic Record, 66(6), pp.3-12. Gregory, R.G. and Hunter, B., 2012. The macro economy and the development of ghettos and urban poverty in Australia. Gregory, R.G., 2014. Income policy and unemployment in Australia. Economica, 67(345), pp.S56-S74. Harris, M.N., 2013. Demonstrating the probability of youth unemployment in Australia. Financial Record, 64(115), pp.324-354. Healey, K., 2013. Unemployment in Australia. Issues in Culture, 67. Marks, G.N. and Fleming, N., 2012. Factors Influencing Youth Unemployment in Australia: 1990-2005. Longitudinal Reviews of Early Australian life. Investigation Report. ACER Client Service, Private Bag 76, Camberwell, Victoria 3456 Australia (Code: A143LSA; $35 Australian). Parkin, M., 2014. THE SHORT?RUN AND LONG?RUN TRADE?OFFS BETWEEN INFLATION AND JOBLESSNESS IN AUSTRALIA. Australian Economic Papers, 12(21), pp.127-144. Picardie, C.A., 2013. Real wages and unemployment in Australia. Finances, pp.34-65. Richardson, S., 2011. Unemployment in Australia. National Institute of Labour Educations Discussion Paper. Shan, J., 2011. Immigration and Unemployment: a new sign from Australia and New Zealand. International Evaluation of Practical Economics, 23(4), pp.324-365.

The Steel Pan Music History

The musical traditions hosted by Trinidad often reflect its complex political history. Certain trends in musical styles and types of musical instruments emerged as a reply to the oppressive politics of European colonizers (Manuel, Bilby, Largey 240). One of the bright examples of such creative and ingenious response to the British cultural repression is the invention of steel drum, or pan (Manuel et al. 240). The tradition of steel pan music embodies the key social trends of Caribbean society aimed at social inclusiveness (Johnson 206).Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on The Steel Pan Music History specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The roots of steel pan bands can be traced back to the colonial past, when slaves of African origin were not allowed to practice their cultural rites and to express their national identity via playing drums (Pilgrim 427). Even after abolition of slavery in 1834, they were forced to s hift their traditional celebrations of canboulay[1] to carnival days, and those were the only times when they could practice playing self-made percussion instruments (Pilgrim 427). At first those percussion ensembles consisted of bamboo tubes which were hit by sticks and therefore were called â€Å"tamboo-bamboo† after the material of instruments (Manuel et al. 240). Later on, the wooden details were substituted with metal ones and by the early 1940s metal drums took over the traditional â€Å"tamboo-bamboo† instruments (Manuel et al. 240). Initially, a steel band ensemble included most primitive objects as its instruments: biscuit or paint tins, kerosene containers, empty oil drums — everything that had a certain pitch would be used for making rhythmical music (Pilgrim 427). Everything connected with steel band activities acquires a prefix ‘pan-‘: the instruments are called pans, the performance places are panyards, the performers are pan-beaters, e tc. (Pilgrim 426). According to their range, pans are classified into five categories, ranging from tenor to bass pans (Pilgrim 426). The bass, cello, and tenor pans are used for harmony, while the more sharp-sounding ping-pong drums play the melody (Manuel et al. 242). The repertoire performed by pan bands is extremely diversified: from traditional folk songs to soundtrack tunes to works of classical music (Manuel et al. 242). The social significance of steel bands lays in the fact that they allow inclusion of a wide range of social strata in their performance practice. On the one hand, initially created as a way of music making for the lowest and poorest classes of society, steel bands easily allowed representatives of middle class in their friendly community (Johnson 206). On the other hand, steel bands included amateurs who could read no score, and therefore they promoted the spirit of shared improvisation and cooperation between its members. In addition, as steel bands enjoyed more and more popularity with the people, their competitive nature emerged in the form of so-called revving[2] which emphasized the individual skills and strong points of each band (Johnson 208).Advertising Looking for assessment on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In terms of political implications, steel bands revealed their unique quality of promoting amateur culture. Initially frowned upon by the British authorities, steel bands appeared to attract so many tourists that they were gradually recognized as national cultural heritage and accepted as legal. In 1951 Trinidad All Steel Percussion Orchestra, TASPO, brought the art of steel pan performance on a tour around England, and since 1963 a Panorama competition is held among steel bands (Manuel et al. 242). The popularity and the public recognition steel bands have acquired during the last century shows that this initially underground movement has evolved int o a full-blood trend in amateur music that not only brings enjoyment but also helps to resolve social and political tensions. Works Cited Johnson, Kim. â€Å"Notes on the Pan.† Carnival: Culture in Action: The Trinidad Experience. Ed. Milla Cozart Riggio. New York, NY: Routlege, 2004. 204–212. Print. Manuel, Peter, Kenneth Bilby, and Michael Largey. Caribbean Currents: Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2006. Print. Pilgrim, Scofield. â€Å"Steelband in Trinidad and Tobago, or, Trinidad Steelband.† Music in Latin America and the Caribbean: An Encyclopedic History. Ed. Malena Kuss. Vol. 2. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2007. 425–430. Print. Footnotes Canboulay is a traditional slave drum parade that celebrates burning the sugarcane before reaping (Pilgrim 427). In this context revving means increasing the competitive spirit between the musicians by increasing the tempo and virtuosity of performance. This assessment on The Steel Pan Music History was written and submitted by user Rhett E. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Pursuit Of Truth Through Religion And Science Religion Essay Example

The Pursuit Of Truth Through Religion And Science Religion Essay Truth as defined in the lexicon is something that corresponds to fact or world. In recent civilised history, scientific and spiritual positions have frequently conflicted with one another. However, truth can be proven in legion ways. Religious thoughts are usually presented foremost, and so sufficient scientific grounds gathers to make bold spiritual beliefs. The 2008 Mumbai onslaughts were an illustration of strong and devoted spiritual beliefs by Islamic terrorists from Pakistan. In add-on, 90 per centum of the universe s population believes in religion of God go forthing the others sing scientific discipline and assorted positions. Albert Einstein and Galileo Galilei had a greater scientific spectrum and deemed it had an reply to about everything. These finds of scientific discipline are met with amazement and most are considered a divergence. Life of Pie by Yann Martel and Robert Zemeckis movie Contact, contribute significantly in understanding decently, the definition of truth. These two illustrations and the people involved are portrayed by their undetermined heads to happen the chase of truth. So, what is truth? The ethos of scientific discipline was ever been about seeking for the truth. Science is demonstrated clearly and has a distinguishable point in the two comparings. Mr. Satish Kumar from Life of Pie is an Atheist. He says, I do nt believe in faith. Religion is darkness. ( Martel, 29 ) . This statement proves that he disapproves of faith and does non hold religion. He believes in scientific discipline since he is a Biology instructor. Mr. Okamoto and Mr. Chiba doubted the being of religion since they do non believe Piscine Patel s ( Pi ) narrative about the carnivorous island drifting bananas. Therefore, he has a more scientific position. Dr. Eleanor Arroway from Contact, a dedicated truster of scientific discipline was determined to happen other signifiers of life utilizing radio uranology. She says, It s like you re stating that scientific discipline killed God. What if scientific discipline merely revealed that he neer existed in the first topographic point? Contact. This demon strates that she has a higher spectrum towards scientific discipline, and considers that scientific discipline can turn out that God neer existed. Michael Kitz, has a deep scientific head and inquiries Ellie about her experience in the wormhole and, if to believe in religion. Dr. Arroway and Mr. Okamoto both have similar constructs and inquiry themselves about What is truth. We will write a custom essay sample on The Pursuit Of Truth Through Religion And Science Religion specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Pursuit Of Truth Through Religion And Science Religion specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Pursuit Of Truth Through Religion And Science Religion specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Faith is understood to be an unverified cognition that is acknowledged and believed through faith missing the demand of cogent evidence. In some cases, faith is demonstrated significantly, by terrorist act Acts of the Apostless and protest. Pi s male parent has faith in faith and accepts it as truth. He merely wants Pi to believe in Hinduism. He utters, But Muslims? It s wholly foreign to our tradition. They re foreigners. He is dedicated to one faith and wants Pi to be attached to it besides. Joseph from Contact who is a passionate truster in faith represented himself dramatically by perpetrating a self-destructive mission. He did that to give any new informations found on the exhibition. Joseph is the leader of an organisation that prohibits the usage of scientific discipline and merely believes in God. This bold act demonstrates his domination of religion and being of the God. David Drumlin from Contact claimed to believe in God but is unsure of truth. Therefore, is truth faith? The Centre of the spectrum, both includes spiritual and scientific beliefs. Pi accepts and considers both in the being of God and the survey of scientific discipline. In add-on, he besides studied fauna and faith. He prays to three different Supreme beings. He says I merely want to love God ( Martel, 69 ) . His cognition about God and faith helps him last the assorted obstructions he faces on the lifeboat. Pi besides thinks about ways to last utilizing the scientific cognition taught by his instructor. Palmer Joss from Contact spent his life seeking for truth through the religion in God. He replies, Ironically the thing that people are most hungry for, significance is the one thing that scientific discipline has nt been able to give them Contact. This statement shows that he believes in faith but, he besides considers scientific discipline since he is destined for truth utilizing both signifiers of information and besides an writer of an astronomy book. Truth is better understood by these persons. Truth plays an of import function in the defining of an single character. This is represented in infinite ways and has legion accounts. Religion and scientific discipline have ever been in clang with one another because they each demonstrate complete opposite ideals. Religion is widely accepted since 90 per centum of the universe s population believes in religion of God. Most scientists believe that scientific discipline can explicate that God neer truly exists and there is nil like religion or hope. Therefore, what is truth?

Relation between International Trade and World Output

Relation between International Trade and World Output Abstract This paper seeks to explore the relationship between international trade and the general world output by discussing the pattern of international trade over the years as it has grown since the World War II. This is because most of the trade done today is between different countries some of which are not in the same continents or trading blocks that will be explored further in this paper.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Relation between International Trade and World Output specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This phenomenon is not only evidenced in the developed countries, but also in the developing countries, a concept that was earlier unimaginable, hence the great interest in the topic. This has been mainly attributed to the growing spirit of globalization and the advancement of different technologies which have made communication and especially transport not only fast, but also cheap hence turning the world in to a global village. Introduction Trade is basically the exchange of goods and services between different parties, and in this case between different countries. International trade does not only involve the exchange of goods and services across international borders, but it has also evolved to include capital exchange and even exchange of vital ideas. When these different countries increase their output, international trade also increases since there are more products to be exchanged in trade. Due to the diverse trading cultures, developing and also established economies came together and introduced a global organization that would harmonize the differences among these countries (Vaidya, 2006). WTO would from then on monitor all international trading and settle any disputes that may arise. They would also monitor tariffs and ensure there is no discrimination towards any member country. WTO being a permanent body has far much power in establishing law and order in order to avoid any oppression, and can hence establish a long lasting solution to many of the misunderstandings that often arise in commerce. It has over 146 members making it a global organization that can exercise its power which would in most cases have an impact to the global economy. WTO also controls subsidies and quotas of different items that were initially not under any regulations. It has led to much more efficient banking freedom and confidence among member countries (Gallagher, 2005).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Pattern of International Trade International trade has directly and indirectly affected the world output significantly. It has been noted that countries that rarely practice international trade remain poor and show very little or no growth at all. The countries that have reduced trade barriers and increased in international trading have shown greater and faste r growth compared to those with trade barriers and with no trading relations with the outside world (Zhang, 2008). Exports have been one of the greatest boosts to individual country’s GDPs and imports has led to introduction of new technology and new inventions, which has resulted to improved living standards, faster trading, good relations, and peace between partner countries, with many other indirect benefits. According to a study by World Bank, about twenty four developing countries that got involved in international trade in the world economy between 1980-1990 became more advanced in terms of better Medicare, schooling, increased GDP, longer life expectancy, low mortality rate in both children and the elderly and even per capita income of these countries greatly increased. The study showed that the per capita income increased at an average rate of about 5% in these countries, while it grew at only 2% in developed countries. Countries like China, which is currently a globa l giant in terms of commerce and international trade, Hungary and India, were among the few countries that took advantage of the global market and this resulted to a sharp increase in their various GDP, which is still among the best, but lately strained by the Global economic meltdown. Over the last two decades or so the growth of world trade has averaged about 6% per annum, which is as fast as the word output. The economic output is affected by various factors such as exchange rates, purchasing power parity, including human economic activity, among several others. International trade greatly increases the world output as it encourages completion to some level. It also motivates production of high standard goods with exceptional quality thus favoring the world output in monetary terms. With a higher economic output, one can be sure to find countries expanding there trading with other countries since they have attained a higher bargaining power since they have a lot more to offer. In creased world economic output also brings about a near balance of trade that is almost similar to barter trade system, where one would offer an item for an item of the same value.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Relation between International Trade and World Output specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More With this kind of trade, developing countries that produce valuable unfinished goods can actually trade these goods for other manufactured goods with added value instead of having to be expecting grants and relief from the developed countries. Similar elements affect both international trade, and world output. This may include geographical segmentation of manufacturing processes similar nations trading in related goods, emergence of super trading economies such as the USA and China and producers that slice up the value chain. Due to the current economic crunch, demand for imports has increased whereas the exports have decr eased which was a phenomenon only evidenced during the World War II and the years thereafter. This has shown a significant drop in the world output, leading to lower GDPs. A lower GDP, especially for developed countries which have for a long time enjoyed a steady economic stability, means accumulating debts which will end up reducing international trade. Aspects of international trade As explained in the Ricardo and Heckscher-Ohlin theories, international trade is like new technology, which continuously adds up to the productive capacity of trading countries and the realized efficiency is mainly due to comparative advantage and proper utilization of increasing returns. Trade in essence, greatly promotes dynamism and innovation as has been seen in the USA, Japan and China, to be especially due to competition.   In return, thiscatapults world output to a whole different level. This proves that international trade and world output are actually interdependent (Wild, Wild and Han, 2003 ). Increased trading and increased world output results in standardization of many elements such as tariffs, quotas and reduced trading barriers, which results in the theory of purchasing power parity. This is a theory of exchange rate adjustments in accordance to the law of one price. It involves harmonizing prices between trading countries by using the normal exchange rate of currencies around the world. The failure of purchasing power parity across borders may involve additional expenses that arise along the trade, like transportation cost, duties on imports, spoilage for the case of agricultural and other perishable goods, among many others.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to Ocampo and Martà ­n, (2003), countries specialize in production of goods they are best at. This ensures a country exploits its ability to produce as much as it can of the commodity it produces best. This eliminates wastage of resources on non-viable production of commodities that such a country is not best suited to produce. This model takes into consideration the technological differences between countries, especially between the developed and the developing countries. This model thus allows specialization and in a way leads to interdependence. It also leads to maximum output for individual countries and specialization leads to increased trade. Without international trade, the consumption of countries would only be limited to their production capacities. Trade allows for specialization as countries can consume products which they dont produce, with the effective exchange with that which it produces in abundance (Zhang, 2008). For instance Japan doesnt produce grapes, but it is able to consume a lot of grapes which are imported from other countries, which in turn consume the electronics and vehicles that Japan has specialized in producing. Conclusion Therefore, it is imperative that international trade exists since lack of it will force countries to be contented with their own products that they produce with their available resources, which locks them out of the resources that they may not have (Zhang, 2008). It will also lead to the degeneration or slowdown of the advancements made in the communication and transport sectors as well as the exchange of information and knowledge whose consequences will be the detriment of global and local economies. References Gallagher, P. (2005). The first ten years of the WTO: 1995-2005. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. Ocampo, J., A. and Martà ­n, J. (2003). Globalization and development: a Latin American and Caribbean perspective. New York: World Bank Publications. Vaidya, K. (2006). Globalization: e ncyclopedia of trade, labor, and politics, Volume 1. New York: ABC-CLIO Wild, J., J. Wild, K., L. and Han, J., C. (2003). International business. New York: Prentice Hall. Zhang, W. (2008). International Trade Theory: Capital, Knowledge, Economic Structure, Money, and Prices over Time. New York: Springer.

Ultimate Reality of Mahayana Buddhism Research Paper

Ultimate Reality of Mahayana Buddhism - Research Paper Example In Buddhism, there is a common teaching known as Shunyata. Shunyata was closely related with the works of Nagarjuna. This word implies emptiness or being void or even being open. Buddhism is one of the dominant religions in the Eastern religion which extends to most parts of India. The founder of Buddhism was Siddhartha who lived in the Sixth century BC (Valea 6). In the contemporary world, there are two branches of Buddhism. There is the conservative branch on one hand and the liberal branch on the other. The conservative branch is represented by the Thevada School which spreads in Southeast of Asia and Sri-Lanka. On the other hand, the liberal branch involves Mahayana which spread in China, Korea, Tibet, and Japan. The emergence of the Mahayana Buddhism took place between the first century BC and the first century AD. After the death of their masters, the Mahayana sutras were just revealed a long time after. This is because they were not understood by the majority of the people. Th eir teachings were too complex to the people and therefore attracted little attention. However, people began to understand their teachings with time which cultivated their interests in the teachings. On realizing the benefits of the teachings, more people became interested and the teachings were received by a greater number of people. According to Theravada school, in Ultimate Reality, none of the personal god, material or spiritual substance exists by itself (Valea 8). This school further argues that the world’s origin is not as Brahman rather or primordial being. According to this school, things which are manifested are the transitory factors of existence. These factors are not independent, they depend on each other. Therefore, when one factor experiences some problems, the entire system is affected. Buddha commented that â€Å"The world exists because of causal actions, all things are produced by causal actions and all beings are governed and bound by causal actions.

Key Points presented by Philosophers in the 17th Century

IntroductionREALLY, should it not be the purpose of a government to work for the benefit of its subjects? The well-known American George Washington said that â€Å"the happiness of society,† that is, of the people, â€Å"is, or ought to be, the end [the objective] of all government.† Over the centuries, humankind has lived under hundreds of governments. None have truly satisfied the needs of all the people.Whatever the complaints made, however, the fact remains that some sort of government is clearly better than no government at all. Without government there would be no order; it would be no less than mob rule. And if you have ever seen a mob in action you know what that would mean—for in a mob people take the opportunity to vent hatred, greed and viciousness, feeling that no one will identify them for punishment.However, despite of all the disappointments brought about by the human government to the society through the threads of history, philosophers from the o lden times up until the present era still believes that the human society could not exist in an organized manner without the existence of a concrete government in authority.  In this regard, it is thus essential for the present generation to know the vitality of the philosophies presented by the 17th up until the 21st century philosophers and how much important they are with regards to the political systems existing in the human society todayAmong the well-known philosophers to be discussed herein are Rene Descartes, Karl Marx, Thomas Hobbes Leviathan, John Locke, Voltaire Candide, Jean Jacques Rousseau, and Montesquieu. These philosophers are most likely agreeing on one theme with regards to their belief of the present situation of the human society and tits need of having a government to rule over its concerns. In this regard, an analysis would be very beneficial to understand the theories and philosophies formulated by the people mentioned above.The PhilosophiesRene Descartes b elieves that in many ways, the human society is in dire need of a government to rule over its activities. According to him, it is indeed naturally innate in humans that they are able to solve and face the challenges they are supposed to meet everyday. The fact that they are capable of speculating on the things that might happen through simple application of theories, humans are indeed capable of solving social issues they face. However, it is also evident in his philosophy that to be able to create the necessary solutions for certain problems, it is important for humans to attain guidance from a higher sort of authority. This is where a government enters the scenario, which is ought to give guidance to the society on how they are supposed to deal with the numerous problems that occur in the society every now and then.Karl Marx on the other end refers to governments as a source of social strength. In his philosophy on the communist manifesto, he states that the idea of communism to  produce socialism is an important factor in helping the human society to progress through their works. According to him, the factual effect of communism to many countries using the said type of government as a means of ruling the territories they organize. It is through this way of governance that the authorities are able to favor the abilities placed by the workers in contributing to the economy of the entire country.Still regarding politics, Thomas Hobbes Leviathan states in his philosophy that men, when left alone are naturally lovers of violence. They are naturally involved in fights and chaos. However, an existing government designed to help the human generations deal with the conflicts they have against each other, then such conflicts are possible of being solved. The laws prepared and implicated by the human governments help so much in making it possible for the human society to be well organized thus giving humans the chance to control their emotions and reactions towards several conflicts that they are involved with.John Locke on the other hand agrees with the idea of Thomas Hobbes. He believes that through the existence of empiricism, the human civilization would become more organized. He states in his philosophy that the main goal of every government is to establish a certain level of organization within the human society. Aside from this, it is indeed beneficial that the governments help the society to learn the needs and the essential factors contributed by law to the lives of the population of people making up the society. With this, cooperation between each subject within the territories ruled by the government could be established well.John Locke further adds that in many ways, a human government is able to emphasize the need for each person to pursue what they believe is true. Certainly, through the existence of ‘tabula rasa’, which refers to the natural rights of humans, the governments are able to deal with the problems caused by the social conflicts in a better and organized manner.Voltaire Candide meanwhile talks about the utopia of the human generation. According to him, the regular exercise of humans of their right to speak of their minds helps in making a better government. The ability of humans to speak out their minds and the rights that are connected with it constantly helps in making more reliable and practical laws and regulations for the society. Certainly, the constant practice of this right is believed by Candide to be a key source to social development.Jean Jacques Rousseau of the philosophy on Social Contract on the other hand makes a clear point in stating that humans are naturally good, however, because of the government and the environment around them, they become rude and are influenced to do otherwise than what is accepted good. To him, government is a factor of the society that must be constantly controlled by the people since the people placed the government in authority. To him, th e exercise of democracy is the key factor to social success.Regarding the existence of a democratic government, Montesquieu agrees that the present systems used by the European governments, having been able to divide the rulership or authoritative power into three major sectors is among the most progressive  innovation there ever was in the human government. In this regard, it is thus expected to be effective enough in leading the human civilization to a progressive future.ConclusionA peaceful, prosperous and happy world that is what people everywhere long for. Not just humility, but reality and honesty oblige us to admit that it is because all men are imperfect that they are not capable of dealing with the necessary needs of having a true reliable government. The fault lies, not just with those who rule, but also with those who are ruled. True, Instant communication and fast transportation have â€Å"shrunk† the size of the world, so that there is an interlocking of intere sts, and no nation can be an isolated, totally independent unit. What happens in one place affects people everywhere else.Governments can make some minor moves to adjust matters and make conditions a little better for the people. However, such help proves to be only superficial and temporary. As the philosophers discussed in this paper states, the existence of a fine government lies upon the capability of the people to cooperate and be in submission to the laws created by the authorities to attain a social Utopia.BIBLIOGRAPHYSteven M. Cahn. (1998). Classics of Political and Moral Philosophy.Oxford University Press, USA.

Juvenile justice system- harsh punishments vs. lighter punishments Essay

Juvenile justice system- harsh punishments vs. lighter punishments - Essay Example There is also the lack of understanding among citizens on the social, political and economic perspectives that cause juvenile crime and the juvenile justice practice. Even though most people do not comprehend the vitality of the juvenile justice system, there have been strong discussions on the causes of crime by the youth and the possible ways of handling them (Champion, Merlo and Benekos 34). There are varied position held by the public concerning this issue, some hold the view that there measures should be put in place that will ensure such crimes are prevented and rehabilitate the young offender. Other members of the public call for the establishment of harsher punishment to the young criminals. They demand that youths who commit crimes be held accountable as adults (Elrod and Ryder 5). There has been a growing dilemma of youth gang violence in Central America. Youth violence is a great worry since it affects the country’s safety and the health of the public. However, some of the strategies put in place so as to address the problem are not successful. It has been noted that the approaches lead to the infringement of human rights hence leading to serious lawful challenges. Violent gangs have been reported to be taking part in injurious actions such as drug abuse. In addition, violent gangs take part in theft and robbery of properties of their neighbors. Juvenile justice systems have been established to ensure that cries committed by the youths are prevented from taking root in the society. Introduction Jane is a woman juvenile detention officer and Jack is a resident of New York, they hold the view that children who commit crime should be rehabilitated rather than punished and measures should be put in place to ensure that crimes involving the juveniles are prevented from occurring in the society. On the contrary, Kennedy is a law enforcement officer while Brian is resident of Los Angeles. They hold the view that the youth who engage in criminal activ ities should be given equal punishment the same as the punishment given to adults. Scenario The issue of juvenile justice system and the approach in which it should take, whether rehabilitative or punishment approach, and the best approach which should be adopted have dominated the public debate for several years now. It is evident that young people engage in serious criminal activities. However, most crimes committed by the young ones do not lead to serious injury or loss of property. The public has had to debate on the best way to approach the issue in order to correct the illegal behavior of the youths (Krisberg 3). There have also been concerns on the best approaches that can effectively help the youth in learning from their mistakes so as to enable them make right decisions concerning their lives now and in the future (Klein 55). Young children who commit crime constitute a diverse population. These young criminals vary depending on their psychological and biological factors as well as the social environment in which they live. However, their biological, social and psychological variation need to taken into account when considering which type of approach whether rehabilitative or be punished. Several states in the United States have placed the age limit to the juvenile justice system jurisdiction a t age 17. When the youths attain the age of 18 years, they are subject to the jurisdiction in the adult justice system. Further, some states have a lower age limit for admission to juvenile court. The age limit often varies from the age of 6 years to 10 years. In cases whereby a lower age limit exists, younger children with the age below the statutory specified age cannot be considered in the

The Effects of the African Slave Trade Term Paper

The Effects of the African Slave Trade - Term Paper Example The slave trade did not start with the intention of selling human beings. Rather, it was a product of a vicious cycle that spiraled into its final form of trading humans. It was not certain if the Arab slave trade was the precursor to the West slave trade. Initially, the Arabs had the slave trade only as a supplement to their more lucrative commerce in Africa with Sudanese gold and other rare and exotic woods. The Arab slave trade however was not geared towards a full scale buying and selling of humans but rather only as a means to satisfy their domestic needs. The Europeans (later the Americans) found the slave trade to be profitable followed suit and made a full scale business out of it whose numbers of the slaves traded accounted to millions (historians dispute the actual numbers but they agreed that it accounted to millions). The slave trading was intensified especially when the plantations on the islands off the coast of Africa (Sao Tome, Principe, Cap Verde) were successfully e stablished. Also, when the New World (America) embarked on its plantation and mines of gold, copper, cocoa, sugar, corn, tobacco and coffee, the slave trade became a convenient source of forced labor. Suffice to say that the international trade during the 15th to 19th century was driven by the slave trade. The commodities that were traded were not only grown and attended by slaves, but the slaves themselves were also part of the commodities that were traded internationally. These centuries of trade slave, ten centuries of slave trade from the Muslim countries that spanned between ninth to ninenteenth century, four centuries of slave trade from Western countries that eclipsed the ten centuries of trade of the Muslim countries, had a widespread implication among the African countries. African countries bled from the forced raid and stripping of its human resource whose trade passed through all her possible routes from the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and ac ross the Atlantic (Bokolo). â€Å"The figures, even where hotly disputed, make your head spin. Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean† (Bokolo). The most obvious effect of slave trade among these African countries is non-development. The African countries being robbed of its able bodied human resource were not able to embark on the development of its agriculture which was a pre requisite towards industrialization (people has to eat first before they can industrialize). Instead, its human resource and best able bodied men and women were used to till the lands of their European and American counterparts and also manned the factories and mines that became the engine of growth in the Western world. While Europe and America prospered, the African source of l abor languished in poverty. The underdevelopment of African countries even lingered until today even if the slave trade already ended more than a century past. The slave trade was so prevalent that the magnitude and depth of the damage brought by the trade that literally stripped these African

Effect of Structural Pounding During Seismic Events

Effect of Structural Pounding During Seismic Events Abstract This project entitled aims at the investigation of the effect of structural pounding to the dynamic response of structures subject to strong ground motions. In many cases structural pounding during earthquake may result in considerable and incalculable damages. It usually need to be accounted for in the case of adjacent structures, bridges, base isolated buildings, industrial and port facilities, and in ground pipelines. The phenomenon of that impact force pounding has been noted by researchers and engineers over the past several decades. As we see through dull historical strokes and performance, in different investigations of past and recent earthquakes damage have illustrated several cases of pounding damage such as those that have occurred in the Imperial Valley (May 18, 1940), the Sequenay earthquake in Canada (1988), Kasai Maison (1991), the Cairo earthquake (1992), the Northridge earthquake (1994), California (1994), Kobe, Japan (1995) Turkey (1999), Taiwan (1999) and Bhuj, Ce ntral Western India (2001). Some of the most memorable seismic events were in the 1972 Managua earthquake, when the five-storey Grant Hotel suffered a complete collapse, also in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, the 14-storey Anchorage Westwood hotel pounded against its low rise ballroom and the most recently extent of pounding in Mexico City in 1985 confirmed this as a major problem. Those all evidences have continued to illustrate the annihilation of earthquakes, with devastation of engineered in both buildings and bridges structures. Amongst the feasible structural destructions, seismic produced pounding has been frequently distinguished in numerous earthquakes, as a result this phenomenon plays a key role to the structures. As engineers, we have a responsibility to prevent it or take the necessary steps to mitigate it for the future constructions by considering the properties that affect and led pounding to occur. In order to examine the effect of the various parameters associated wit h pounding forces on the dynamic response of a seismically excited structure, a number of simulations and parametric studies have been performed, using SAP2000. By more precise investigations that have been done from professional earthquake investigators and engineers pounding produces acceleration and shear at various story levels. Also, significantly depends on the gap size between superstructure segments, which we will examine later on in the project. The main aim of the project is to conduct a detailed investigation on pounding-involved response structure during a seismic event as well as observed the structural behaviour as the result of ground motion excitation by examine the properties that affect pounding and determine the solutions and the mitigations that we have to take into account before we construct a structure in order to avoid future disasters. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Seismic Pounding effect (Overview) Looking throughout the time, investigations and observations of the effects of historical earthquakes have demonstrated that many structures are susceptible to significant damage which may lead to collapse. Numerous devastating earthquakes have hit various seismically active regions. Some investigations that have been followed after those seismic events are distinguished fact providing that, an earthquake within the range of six is capable of creating and generating incalculable and irreversible damages, of both buildings and bridges. Those seismic losses have further consequences, most likely to present economical problem to the community hit. The main target of most seismic excitations are, the primary frequencies of rigid buildings between the ranges of low to medium height, resulting by this in significant accumulations of soil acceleration. Also, addition to this is the causing the presence of the inevitable enduring seismic loads in engineered structures, creating inflexible re sponses. In recent years it becomes more urgent need to minimize seismic damage not only to avoid structures failures but especially in crucial building facilities such as hospitals, telecommunications etc. as well as the protection of the critical equipment that is accommodated by those buildings. (a)barrier rail damage (Northridge earthquake 1994) (b)Connector collapse (Northridge earthquake 1994) In seismically active areas the phenomenon of pounding may need to be accounted for, in the case of closely spaced structures to avoid extensive damages and human losses. The phenomenon of that impact force-pounding has been noted by earthquake investigators over the past several decades when the presence of pounding occurred into an extent. Looking throughout the time, some historical performance of pounding has been denoted, different investigations of past and recent earthquakes damage have illustrated several cases of pounding damage such as those that have occurred in the Imperial Valley (May 18, 1940), California (1994) the Northridge earthquake, Kobe, Japan (1995) and etc. in both engineered structures, buildings and bridges. One of the most remarkable example of pounding-involved destruction resulted from interactions between the Olive View Hospital main building and one of its independently standing stairway towers during the San Fernando earthquake of 1971. The extent of po unding was recently observed in Mexico City in 1985, which then it follows the most recent one in Central Western India (2001). Considerable pounding was observed at sites over 90 km from the epicentre thus indicating the possible catastrophic damage that may occur during future earthquakes having closer epicentres. Is remarkable to denote that pounding of adjacent buildings could have defective damage such as adjacent structures with different dynamic characteristics which vibrate out of phase and there is inadequate separation gap or energy diffusion system to board the relative moderate motions of adjacent buildings. (a)Collapse of a department store building (Northridge earthquake 1994) (b)Collapse of the first story of a wooden residential building (Northridge earthquake 1994) Several researchers considered the topic of pounding between adjacent buildings (Anagnostopoulos 1988; Maison Kasai, 1990; Papadramakis et al, 1996) with proving or deriving mathematical expression in order to evaluate and calculate the pounding force, by using experimental procedures. But few people have actually addressed the topic of pounding between adjacent buildings (Tsai, 1997; Malhotra, 1997; Matsagar Jangid, 2003; Komodromos et al 2007) for which the behaviour and the requirements differ from the conventional structures. Likewise, those projects are limited especially to the study and investigation of pounding between adjacent buildings and based isolated buildings without investigating the case of conflict with neighbouring buildings and the resulting of great deformations of the superstructure. In the past engineers couldnt prevent the pounding due to some factors such as the past seismic codes did not give explicit guidance, because of this and due to particular economical factors and considerations, that are concerning the maximum land usage requirements, especially in the high density populated areas of cities pounding was unavoidable. Due to that, we are able to identify and investigate many buildings in global system which are already been built in contact or overmuch close to another that could easily cause them to suffer from pounding damage in future earthquake strikes. A large rupture is controvertible from both aspects. The overcrowded construction system in many cities complements a dominant apprehension for seismic pounding damage. For these major reasons, it has been comprehensively acquired that pounding is a disastrous phenomenon that should be anticipated or mitigated. Acceleration range will guidance in many cases to quake activities which are appreciably h igher than designed by the design codes that have been used up to now. The most affordable and easy active way for mitigating pounding effects and diminishing pounding damage, is to consider enough separation gap size between close adjacent structures, this causing difficulties to be accomplished, owing to the detailing engineered work that supposed to be done and the high cost of land in this present time. A flipside to the seismic separation gap precaution in the construction design is to reduce the effect or pounding force through devaluating lateral motion, some researchers involved in extent with lateral ground motions due to pounding such as (Kasaiet al. 1996, Abdullah et a.2001, Jankowski et al 2000, Ruangrassamee Kawashima 2003, Kawashima Shoji 2000). This procedure can be accomplished by joining adjacent structures at critical locations of the supports so that their motion could be in-phase with one another or by lessening the pounding buildings damping capacity by means of passive structural control of energy dissipation system. 1.2 Pounding force and impact element Various impact elements are usually used to illustrate the pounding between adjoining construction buildings or bridge structures. Pounding between two conflicting structures, is often simulates by using contact force-based impact models such as the linear spring, Kelvin-Voigt element and Hertz contact model element, and additionally the restitution momentum-based stereo mechanical method. (a) (b) (c) Figure 1.2.1 shows the pounding problem in: (a) bridge structures [1] S. Mithikimar and R. DesRoches 2006; (b) adjacent buildings with link elements [2] V. Annasaheb Matsagar and R. Shyam Jangid 2005; (c) adjacent building with gap size structures [1] S. Mithikimar and R. DesRoches 2006; Also another view of pounding effect beyond that in buildings is on the bridges. Many damages during strong earthquakes have occurred in bridge due to pounding between the girders when the gap is not sufficient. From many experimental studies that have been made showed that pounding damage of a bridge can have severe after-effects as it has been observed in many major earthquakes, such as the 1994 Northridge earthquake etc. As we can see from our daily routine bridges belong to one of the important lifeline systems, their proper function play major role in both our life and in the culture, especially after a devastating earthquake in order to survive and/or recovery. According to some studies [3] Chouw and Hao (2003) and [4] Hai SUI et al. (2004) showed that gap size in the bridges plays the major key role for a bridge to survive under a pounding impact force. The examined the gap size and the outcomes showed that a smaller gap size can expect larger pounding force; therefore the possibility of damage of bridge decks is higher. So on in general designs a small gap should be avoided, if is possible. Moreover according to their experiment the results showed that friction device can decrease pounding impact force that works in different earthquakes. a) Multiple-pier bridge model [4] H. SU, et al 2004; b) Two Single degree of freedom model [4] H. SU, et al 2004; An adequate gap size can contribute to the reduction of pounding effect, but nevertheless in real life the gap size for the designs is unavoidable and due to the limited space that we have to build the design the gap size end up to has smaller values. And thus we resort to other solutions in order to reduce the pounding effect, such as the friction device and bumpers (steel spring with viscous damper). Moreover friction device is much more practical and effective than bumpers. Bumpers can avoid the immediate damage but they cannot reduce the pounding force between the bridge girders, in the other hand friction device can be applied to any earthquake and also is less sensitive to various ground movements. Linear spring element The linear spring element is the easiest and simplest contact element that used to model impact. When the gap between the adjoining structures adjournments, the spring take effect and is presentational of the force established in the meanwhile of impact force. According to Maison Kasai [5] (1992) have used this model widely, to study further analyse pounding between adjacent buildings. Nonetheless, the linear spring cannot resolve the energy dissipation during impact. The linear spring element illustrated in Figure 1.2.3(a). The Kelvin-Voigt Element The Kelvin-Voigt element can be described by a linear spring in parallel with a damper, as depicted in Figure 1.2.3(b), this model has been used in some studies [6] Anagnostopoulos, 1988; [7] Anagnostopoulos and Spiliopoulos, 1992; [8] Jankowski 2005; The linear spring illustrates the force during impact and the damper accounts for the energy dissipation during impact and is mostly used. The damping coefficient (ck) can be related to the coefficient of restitution (e), by equating the energy dissipations during impact, following the form of equations below: Where, and Kk is the stiffness of the contact spring, and m1, m2 are the masses of the colliding bodies. Hertz contact law Additionally, a non linear spring based on Hertz contact law can be used to model impact, as depicted in Figure 1.2.3(c). Nonetheless, the Hertz contact law is a characteristic representing of the static contact between elastic bodies and fails to contain energy loss during impact. The impact force can be expressed in the form of the equation below: Where R is the impact stiffness parameter that depends on the material properties of the colliding structures and the contact surface geometry, g is the at-rest separation and n is the Hertz coefficient. The use of the Hertz contact law has an intuitive appeal in modelling pounding, since one would expect the contact area between the colliding structures to increase as the contact force increases, leading to a non-linear stiffness described by the Hertz coefficient n which typically is taken ad 1.5. Several analysts have adopted this approach, including [9] Davis 1992; [10] Pantelides and Ma 1998; [11] Chau and Wei 2001; and [3] Chau et al. 2003; More, for pounding simulation we can also meet the Hertzdamp model, which is a contact model based on the Hertz contact law and using a non linear hysteresis damper. According to experimental theories, for low peak ground acceleration levels, Hertz model produces sufficing results and the Hertzdamp model can be used in advance for moderate and high peak ground acceleration levels (PGA). The contact element approach has its limitations, with the exact value of spring stiffness to be used, being unclear. Uncertainty in the impact stiffness arises from the unknown geometry of the impact surfaces, uncertain material properties under loading and variable impact velocities. The contact spring stiffness is typically taken as the in plane axial stiffness of the colliding structure (Maison and Kasai, 1990). Another reasonable estimate is twenty times the stiffness of the stiffer structure [6] Anagnostopoulos, 1988; However, using a very stiff spring can lead to numerical convergence difficulties and unrealistically high impact forces. The solution difficulties arise from the large changes in stiffness upon impact or contact loss, thus resulting in large unbalanced forces affecting the stability of the assembled equations of motion. (a) Linear spring element (b) Kelvin Voigt Element (c) Hertz non-linear spring element Figure 1.2.3: Various impact models and their contact force relations [12] Thomas G.Mezger 2006; 1.3 Method of Seismic Analysis 1.3.1 Non-linear Dynamic Analysis Non-linear Dynamic analysis involves step-by step in time integration of the non-linear governing equations of motion, a powerful analysis that can evaluate any given seismic event motion. An earthquake accelerogram is correlated and the consistent response-history of a structural model during seismic events is evaluated. Computer softwares have been designed for these kinds of purposes. Sap can utilized a non-linear dynamic analysis for both linear elastic and non-linear inelastic material response, using step by step integration methods. Is a suitable computer program that is able to evaluate and analyze the response of a two-dimensional and a three-dimensional non-linear structure taking as an input the accelerogram component of an Earthquake? This program will be used to analyse our structural model and to produce a real time of time-history displacement. In a nonlinear dynamic procedure the building model followed static procedures incorporating directly the inelastic material r esponse using in general finite elements. Because this program is using step-by step integration method of analysis the response of the structure, is one of the most sophisticated analysis procedure for predicting forces and displacements under seismic input. However, the calculated response can be very sensitive to the characteristics of the individual ground motion used as seismic input; therefore several time-history analyses are required using different ground motion records. The main value of nonlinear dynamic procedures has the objective to simulate the behaviour of a building structure in detail. 1.4 Main Objectives of this project The main focus of this project is the development of an analytical model that pounding force will present based on the classical impact theory by using parametric study to identify the most important parameters that affecting pounding. Those factors that give arise to that impact force, therefore investigate of the different practical types of structures that pounding can be occurred. The main objective and scope of this study are, to explore the global response of buildings structures when the pounding effects take place under seismic events, therefore to review the main outcomes of the literature and how the impact theory come across to the practical cases. Create a structural modelling and perform a non linear time history analysis on it. Examine the realistic model of pounding that we will create if it satisfies the properties in order for the structure to work. Determine the relative importance of the dynamic characteristics of pounding. Dynamic analysis will be carried out on the model structure to observe the displacement of the structure due to earthquake excitation. When we examine the main structure we are mainly concerned with displacement, velocity and acceleration, the general dynamic behaviour of the structure under the action of dynamic loads such as earthquake lateral loads. For the purpose of the project appropriate computer software will be used for its purposes (e.g. SAP2000). Creation and versatile of the model, accomplishment of the analysis, and checking and breakthrough of the design must be all done through this interface. Graphical displays of the results, including the real-time of time-history displacements will be easily produced by the use of that software. At the end of that modelling analysis by gathering all the necessary and useful outcomes and explored in deep the main parameters derived by this, the conclusion and results of what we have to adopt as engineering before retrofitting a structure. The appropriate structural parameters are the separation gap size between adjacent structures (storey mass, structural stiffness and yield strength etc.), the dynamic behaviour of a damped multi-degree of freedom bridge system separated by an expansion joint, considering the limited width of clearance around a seismically isolated buildings, that pounding can cause high over stresses when the colliding buildings have different height, periods or masses and the isolators in bridge structures are effective in mitigating the induced seismic forces, cable restrainers etc. Engineers should adopt those realistic facts before they construct new structures in order to succeed future sustainability of the structures and avoiding by this the impact phenomenon of pounding. Accomplish to mitigate the phenomenon of pounding in order to prevent future collisions and/or engineering disasters when seismic events occur. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Practical Cases Pounding-impact force generated by earthquakes between different analytical structure models may provoke extensive damage and in general most of the times the result of that force is not pleasant, it may lead the structure to a total collision as it can be seen from different practical cases. Pounding problem is phenomenon that has been observed during earthquakes and in accordance to ground motions, and has been extensively investigated by various researchers that have used a variety of impact analytical models. Because of the importance of what pounding will have as a result of different engineering structures, attracted the attention of several scientists and analyzers? This absorption is a consequence fact of a plenty growing amount of evidence, which can be found in reports and journals, which have been created after dominant exceeding earthquakes. Demonstrating, the power of that certain impact force which may cause considerable damage. The conclusions and results of successive series of various numerical, integrated analytical and experimental studies have been conducted using individual structural models and administering different models of practical cases confirm that pounding, due to constraining additional impact forces, may result in damage as well as significantly increase the structural response. Moreover, there are many practical case histories of engineered buildings with different dynamic properties and characteristics, which have been constructed under the old earthquake resistant design codes. Analogous conditions concern also bridge constructions. When a structure is under earthquake vibrations will move according to ground motions. These vibrations can be entirely exaggerated, creating at the same time stresses and deformations throughout the structure. Evaluation of methods can be carry out in engineering practise to estimate the parameters that give a rise to pounding. The accuracy and the ability of computational appliance have increased a lot this century by helping us evaluate the seismic structural response of structure, a variety of softwares computing programs have been designed for those purposes, and can accomplished to calculate the dynamic seismic response of a structure which help engineers mitigate pounding effects in structure by avoiding future disaster s . Linear and nonlinear models are realistic pounding models that have been used for studying the performance of a structural system under the mode of structural pounding effect under seismic events. Significance to notice in seismically active areas the serious hazard that pounding can cause and in what practical cases does it occurs by review of some critical and enlightened journals and reports, according to history performance of an exceeding major earthquakes. Also a time history analysis is a dynamic tool for the investigation of a structural seismic enforcement. Because of all the above reasons, investigations have been carried out on pounding mitigation in order to improve the seismic response. 2.1.1 Linear and non-linear pounding of structural systems Pantellides and Ma [13] examined by experimental procedures, the dynamic response of a damped single degree-of-freedom structural model during a seismic event. They analysed the structural behaviour of SDF with both elastic and inelastic structural impact response by using realistic parameters for the pounding model in numerical calculations of the earthquake response. The method of analysis that they used can be used to examine pounding in both buildings and bridges. In order to accomplished to evaluate the effects that concerning pounding force during earthquake in structures, they made a comparison between linear and non-linear models. In the non-linear pounding model they produced results that showed the one-sided pounding model produces more dangerous effects than the two-sided. In their analysis they derived a mathematical equation that concerns the impact force effects in order to represent pounding model for both elastic and inelastic structures. A realistic pounding element was used for this studying and numerical simulations have demonstrated that pounding impact behaviour is not responsive to the values of the stiffness parameter. Furthermore, their experimental results for both elastic and inelastic structures in order to balance damping levels have showed that the higher deformation occurred in the elastic model. According to some observations that have been made the values of pounding force is relatively small in the inelastic structures in comparison to the elastic structures. The value codes of moderate the damping levels are controlled as compared to the actual seismic separation gap size found through the analysis of SDF structural model. The value of seismic gap is decreased considerably as the damping capacity of the pounding structural model is increased. Jankowski [14], addressed to an extent of a non-linear modelling due of earthquake that generated pounding of structural buildings, by deriving the essential fundamental mathematical expressions, involving the function and the applications of the non-linear analysis. By analysing various earthquake records, he derived appropriate mathematical expressions showing the limitation and the feasibility of a non-linear model, in anticipating values for a seismic pounding gap size as well as values for mass, elastic stiffness and damping coefficients between buildings. In his analysis of two inadequately separated buildings with different dynamic characteristics, modelled by elastoplastic multi-degree-of-freedom lumped mass models are used to simulate the functioning structural behaviour and non-linear viscoelastic impact specificity elements are applied to a model collision. The results of the study demonstrate that pounding has an indicative impact on the behaviour of structural buildings, and furthermore the results that he derived confirm the performance of the non-linear, viscoelastic model which endures to simulate the pounding phenomenon more accurately. 2.1.2 Seismic Pounding Effects between adjacent buildings In these last decades, the pounding phenomenon between closely spaced building structures can be a serious hazard especially in seismically active areas with strong ground motion. Because of that critical fact a beneficial awareness of pounding response on engineer structures and numerical formulas for calculating building separation gap size based on linear or analogous linear methods have been introduced. Abdel Raheem [14] established and achieved a tool for the inelastic analysis of seismic pounding effect between buildings. He carried out a parametric study on buildings pounding response as well as proper seismic hazard mitigation practice for adjacent buildings. Three categories of recorded earthquake excitation were used for input. He studied the effect of impact using linear and nonlinear contact force model for different separation distances and compared with nominal model without pounding consideration. Therefore the results of these studies lean on the stimulation characteristics and the relationship between the buildings fundamental period. Furthermore because pounding produces acceleration and shear in various story levels that are greater than those from the no pounding case. Westermo [16] suggested, in order improving the earthquake response of structures without adequate in-between space of the structures, to linking buildings by beams, which can carry the forces between the structures and thus annihilating collisions. Anagnostopoulos [6] analysed the effect of pounding for buildings under strong ground motions by a simplified single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) model. Miller and Fatemi [17] explored in to an extent the phenomenon of pounding-impact force, of adjacent buildings subjected to harmonic motions by the vibroimpact concept. Maison and Kasai [18] modelled the buildings as multiple-degree-of-freedom systems and analysed the response of structural pounding with different types of idealizations. Papadrakakis et al. [19] studied the pounding response of two or more close separated buildings based on the Lagrange multiplier approach by which the geometric compatibility conditions due to proximity are constrained. A three-dimensional model developed for the simulation of the pounding behaviour of adjacent buildings is presented by Papadrakakis et al. [20]. In the evaluation of building separation, Jeng et al. [18] estimated the minimum separation distance required to avoid pounding of adjacent buildings by the spectral difference (SPD) method. Kasai et al. [4] extended Jengs results and proposed a simplified rule to predict the inelastic vibration phase of buildings based on the numerical results of dynamic time-history analyses. Anagnostopoulos and Spiliopoulos [7] examined the behaviour of common pounding between adjacent buildings in city blocks to several strong earthquakes. In the study, the buildings were idealized as lumped-mass, shear beam type, multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) systems with bilinear force deformation characteristics and with bases supported on translational and rocking spring dashpots. Collisions between adjacent masses can occur at any level and are simulated by means of viscoelastic impact elements. They used five real earthquake motions to study the effects of the following factors: building configuration and relative size, seismic separation distance and impact element properties. It was found that pounding can cause high over stresses, mainly when the colliding buildings have significantly different heights, periods or masses. They suggest a possibility for introducing a set of conditions into the codes, combined with some special measures, as an alternative to the seismic separati on requirement. Figure 2.1.2-2 on the left there is a finite element mathematical model and on the right shows the elevation view of a 2 different height building with the separation gap size [14] Abdel Raheem 2006; 2.1.3 SEISMIC POUNDING EFFECT AND RESTRAINERS ON SEISMIC RESPONCE OF MULTIPLE-FRAME BRIDGES DesRoches and Muthukumar [22] used analytical illustrations to check out, the factors and the parameters affecting the worldwide reaction and behaviour of a multiple-frame bridge as a result of pounding of adjacent frames. They have conducted parameter studies of one-sided and two-sided pounding, to dispose the effects of frame stiffness ratio, ground motion characteristics, frame yielding, and restrainers on the pounding behaviour of bridge frames. They showed that the addition of restrainers has a minor effect on the one-sided pounding response of highly out-of-phase frames. It is determined that the most important parameters are the frame period ratio and the characteristic period of the ground motion. The current study explores the effect that pounding impact-force and restrainers have on the worldwide appeal of bridge frames in a multi-frame bridge. They used investigations of two-sided pounding using MDOF models, which showed a favourable post impact response for the flexible f rame and a detrimental effect for the stiff frame demand, for all period ratios. The results from both one-sided and two-sided impact reveal that the response of bridge frames due to pounding, irrespective of the ground motion period ratio, thus validating the recommendations suggested by Caltrans. Current recommendations by Caltrans for limitations in frame period ratios to reduce the effects of pounding are evaluated through an example case. The effect of restrainers on the pounding response of bridge frames is evaluated. The results show that restrainers have very little effect on the demands on bridge frames compared with pounding. 2.1.4 GIRDER POUNDING ON BRIDGES Hao and Chouw [23] introduced a new design principle for anticipating Effect of Structural Pounding During Seismic Events Effect of Structural Pounding During Seismic Events Abstract This project entitled aims at the investigation of the effect of structural pounding to the dynamic response of structures subject to strong ground motions. In many cases structural pounding during earthquake may result in considerable and incalculable damages. It usually need to be accounted for in the case of adjacent structures, bridges, base isolated buildings, industrial and port facilities, and in ground pipelines. The phenomenon of that impact force pounding has been noted by researchers and engineers over the past several decades. As we see through dull historical strokes and performance, in different investigations of past and recent earthquakes damage have illustrated several cases of pounding damage such as those that have occurred in the Imperial Valley (May 18, 1940), the Sequenay earthquake in Canada (1988), Kasai Maison (1991), the Cairo earthquake (1992), the Northridge earthquake (1994), California (1994), Kobe, Japan (1995) Turkey (1999), Taiwan (1999) and Bhuj, Ce ntral Western India (2001). Some of the most memorable seismic events were in the 1972 Managua earthquake, when the five-storey Grant Hotel suffered a complete collapse, also in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, the 14-storey Anchorage Westwood hotel pounded against its low rise ballroom and the most recently extent of pounding in Mexico City in 1985 confirmed this as a major problem. Those all evidences have continued to illustrate the annihilation of earthquakes, with devastation of engineered in both buildings and bridges structures. Amongst the feasible structural destructions, seismic produced pounding has been frequently distinguished in numerous earthquakes, as a result this phenomenon plays a key role to the structures. As engineers, we have a responsibility to prevent it or take the necessary steps to mitigate it for the future constructions by considering the properties that affect and led pounding to occur. In order to examine the effect of the various parameters associated wit h pounding forces on the dynamic response of a seismically excited structure, a number of simulations and parametric studies have been performed, using SAP2000. By more precise investigations that have been done from professional earthquake investigators and engineers pounding produces acceleration and shear at various story levels. Also, significantly depends on the gap size between superstructure segments, which we will examine later on in the project. The main aim of the project is to conduct a detailed investigation on pounding-involved response structure during a seismic event as well as observed the structural behaviour as the result of ground motion excitation by examine the properties that affect pounding and determine the solutions and the mitigations that we have to take into account before we construct a structure in order to avoid future disasters. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Seismic Pounding effect (Overview) Looking throughout the time, investigations and observations of the effects of historical earthquakes have demonstrated that many structures are susceptible to significant damage which may lead to collapse. Numerous devastating earthquakes have hit various seismically active regions. Some investigations that have been followed after those seismic events are distinguished fact providing that, an earthquake within the range of six is capable of creating and generating incalculable and irreversible damages, of both buildings and bridges. Those seismic losses have further consequences, most likely to present economical problem to the community hit. The main target of most seismic excitations are, the primary frequencies of rigid buildings between the ranges of low to medium height, resulting by this in significant accumulations of soil acceleration. Also, addition to this is the causing the presence of the inevitable enduring seismic loads in engineered structures, creating inflexible re sponses. In recent years it becomes more urgent need to minimize seismic damage not only to avoid structures failures but especially in crucial building facilities such as hospitals, telecommunications etc. as well as the protection of the critical equipment that is accommodated by those buildings. (a)barrier rail damage (Northridge earthquake 1994) (b)Connector collapse (Northridge earthquake 1994) In seismically active areas the phenomenon of pounding may need to be accounted for, in the case of closely spaced structures to avoid extensive damages and human losses. The phenomenon of that impact force-pounding has been noted by earthquake investigators over the past several decades when the presence of pounding occurred into an extent. Looking throughout the time, some historical performance of pounding has been denoted, different investigations of past and recent earthquakes damage have illustrated several cases of pounding damage such as those that have occurred in the Imperial Valley (May 18, 1940), California (1994) the Northridge earthquake, Kobe, Japan (1995) and etc. in both engineered structures, buildings and bridges. One of the most remarkable example of pounding-involved destruction resulted from interactions between the Olive View Hospital main building and one of its independently standing stairway towers during the San Fernando earthquake of 1971. The extent of po unding was recently observed in Mexico City in 1985, which then it follows the most recent one in Central Western India (2001). Considerable pounding was observed at sites over 90 km from the epicentre thus indicating the possible catastrophic damage that may occur during future earthquakes having closer epicentres. Is remarkable to denote that pounding of adjacent buildings could have defective damage such as adjacent structures with different dynamic characteristics which vibrate out of phase and there is inadequate separation gap or energy diffusion system to board the relative moderate motions of adjacent buildings. (a)Collapse of a department store building (Northridge earthquake 1994) (b)Collapse of the first story of a wooden residential building (Northridge earthquake 1994) Several researchers considered the topic of pounding between adjacent buildings (Anagnostopoulos 1988; Maison Kasai, 1990; Papadramakis et al, 1996) with proving or deriving mathematical expression in order to evaluate and calculate the pounding force, by using experimental procedures. But few people have actually addressed the topic of pounding between adjacent buildings (Tsai, 1997; Malhotra, 1997; Matsagar Jangid, 2003; Komodromos et al 2007) for which the behaviour and the requirements differ from the conventional structures. Likewise, those projects are limited especially to the study and investigation of pounding between adjacent buildings and based isolated buildings without investigating the case of conflict with neighbouring buildings and the resulting of great deformations of the superstructure. In the past engineers couldnt prevent the pounding due to some factors such as the past seismic codes did not give explicit guidance, because of this and due to particular economical factors and considerations, that are concerning the maximum land usage requirements, especially in the high density populated areas of cities pounding was unavoidable. Due to that, we are able to identify and investigate many buildings in global system which are already been built in contact or overmuch close to another that could easily cause them to suffer from pounding damage in future earthquake strikes. A large rupture is controvertible from both aspects. The overcrowded construction system in many cities complements a dominant apprehension for seismic pounding damage. For these major reasons, it has been comprehensively acquired that pounding is a disastrous phenomenon that should be anticipated or mitigated. Acceleration range will guidance in many cases to quake activities which are appreciably h igher than designed by the design codes that have been used up to now. The most affordable and easy active way for mitigating pounding effects and diminishing pounding damage, is to consider enough separation gap size between close adjacent structures, this causing difficulties to be accomplished, owing to the detailing engineered work that supposed to be done and the high cost of land in this present time. A flipside to the seismic separation gap precaution in the construction design is to reduce the effect or pounding force through devaluating lateral motion, some researchers involved in extent with lateral ground motions due to pounding such as (Kasaiet al. 1996, Abdullah et a.2001, Jankowski et al 2000, Ruangrassamee Kawashima 2003, Kawashima Shoji 2000). This procedure can be accomplished by joining adjacent structures at critical locations of the supports so that their motion could be in-phase with one another or by lessening the pounding buildings damping capacity by means of passive structural control of energy dissipation system. 1.2 Pounding force and impact element Various impact elements are usually used to illustrate the pounding between adjoining construction buildings or bridge structures. Pounding between two conflicting structures, is often simulates by using contact force-based impact models such as the linear spring, Kelvin-Voigt element and Hertz contact model element, and additionally the restitution momentum-based stereo mechanical method. (a) (b) (c) Figure 1.2.1 shows the pounding problem in: (a) bridge structures [1] S. Mithikimar and R. DesRoches 2006; (b) adjacent buildings with link elements [2] V. Annasaheb Matsagar and R. Shyam Jangid 2005; (c) adjacent building with gap size structures [1] S. Mithikimar and R. DesRoches 2006; Also another view of pounding effect beyond that in buildings is on the bridges. Many damages during strong earthquakes have occurred in bridge due to pounding between the girders when the gap is not sufficient. From many experimental studies that have been made showed that pounding damage of a bridge can have severe after-effects as it has been observed in many major earthquakes, such as the 1994 Northridge earthquake etc. As we can see from our daily routine bridges belong to one of the important lifeline systems, their proper function play major role in both our life and in the culture, especially after a devastating earthquake in order to survive and/or recovery. According to some studies [3] Chouw and Hao (2003) and [4] Hai SUI et al. (2004) showed that gap size in the bridges plays the major key role for a bridge to survive under a pounding impact force. The examined the gap size and the outcomes showed that a smaller gap size can expect larger pounding force; therefore the possibility of damage of bridge decks is higher. So on in general designs a small gap should be avoided, if is possible. Moreover according to their experiment the results showed that friction device can decrease pounding impact force that works in different earthquakes. a) Multiple-pier bridge model [4] H. SU, et al 2004; b) Two Single degree of freedom model [4] H. SU, et al 2004; An adequate gap size can contribute to the reduction of pounding effect, but nevertheless in real life the gap size for the designs is unavoidable and due to the limited space that we have to build the design the gap size end up to has smaller values. And thus we resort to other solutions in order to reduce the pounding effect, such as the friction device and bumpers (steel spring with viscous damper). Moreover friction device is much more practical and effective than bumpers. Bumpers can avoid the immediate damage but they cannot reduce the pounding force between the bridge girders, in the other hand friction device can be applied to any earthquake and also is less sensitive to various ground movements. Linear spring element The linear spring element is the easiest and simplest contact element that used to model impact. When the gap between the adjoining structures adjournments, the spring take effect and is presentational of the force established in the meanwhile of impact force. According to Maison Kasai [5] (1992) have used this model widely, to study further analyse pounding between adjacent buildings. Nonetheless, the linear spring cannot resolve the energy dissipation during impact. The linear spring element illustrated in Figure 1.2.3(a). The Kelvin-Voigt Element The Kelvin-Voigt element can be described by a linear spring in parallel with a damper, as depicted in Figure 1.2.3(b), this model has been used in some studies [6] Anagnostopoulos, 1988; [7] Anagnostopoulos and Spiliopoulos, 1992; [8] Jankowski 2005; The linear spring illustrates the force during impact and the damper accounts for the energy dissipation during impact and is mostly used. The damping coefficient (ck) can be related to the coefficient of restitution (e), by equating the energy dissipations during impact, following the form of equations below: Where, and Kk is the stiffness of the contact spring, and m1, m2 are the masses of the colliding bodies. Hertz contact law Additionally, a non linear spring based on Hertz contact law can be used to model impact, as depicted in Figure 1.2.3(c). Nonetheless, the Hertz contact law is a characteristic representing of the static contact between elastic bodies and fails to contain energy loss during impact. The impact force can be expressed in the form of the equation below: Where R is the impact stiffness parameter that depends on the material properties of the colliding structures and the contact surface geometry, g is the at-rest separation and n is the Hertz coefficient. The use of the Hertz contact law has an intuitive appeal in modelling pounding, since one would expect the contact area between the colliding structures to increase as the contact force increases, leading to a non-linear stiffness described by the Hertz coefficient n which typically is taken ad 1.5. Several analysts have adopted this approach, including [9] Davis 1992; [10] Pantelides and Ma 1998; [11] Chau and Wei 2001; and [3] Chau et al. 2003; More, for pounding simulation we can also meet the Hertzdamp model, which is a contact model based on the Hertz contact law and using a non linear hysteresis damper. According to experimental theories, for low peak ground acceleration levels, Hertz model produces sufficing results and the Hertzdamp model can be used in advance for moderate and high peak ground acceleration levels (PGA). The contact element approach has its limitations, with the exact value of spring stiffness to be used, being unclear. Uncertainty in the impact stiffness arises from the unknown geometry of the impact surfaces, uncertain material properties under loading and variable impact velocities. The contact spring stiffness is typically taken as the in plane axial stiffness of the colliding structure (Maison and Kasai, 1990). Another reasonable estimate is twenty times the stiffness of the stiffer structure [6] Anagnostopoulos, 1988; However, using a very stiff spring can lead to numerical convergence difficulties and unrealistically high impact forces. The solution difficulties arise from the large changes in stiffness upon impact or contact loss, thus resulting in large unbalanced forces affecting the stability of the assembled equations of motion. (a) Linear spring element (b) Kelvin Voigt Element (c) Hertz non-linear spring element Figure 1.2.3: Various impact models and their contact force relations [12] Thomas G.Mezger 2006; 1.3 Method of Seismic Analysis 1.3.1 Non-linear Dynamic Analysis Non-linear Dynamic analysis involves step-by step in time integration of the non-linear governing equations of motion, a powerful analysis that can evaluate any given seismic event motion. An earthquake accelerogram is correlated and the consistent response-history of a structural model during seismic events is evaluated. Computer softwares have been designed for these kinds of purposes. Sap can utilized a non-linear dynamic analysis for both linear elastic and non-linear inelastic material response, using step by step integration methods. Is a suitable computer program that is able to evaluate and analyze the response of a two-dimensional and a three-dimensional non-linear structure taking as an input the accelerogram component of an Earthquake? This program will be used to analyse our structural model and to produce a real time of time-history displacement. In a nonlinear dynamic procedure the building model followed static procedures incorporating directly the inelastic material r esponse using in general finite elements. Because this program is using step-by step integration method of analysis the response of the structure, is one of the most sophisticated analysis procedure for predicting forces and displacements under seismic input. However, the calculated response can be very sensitive to the characteristics of the individual ground motion used as seismic input; therefore several time-history analyses are required using different ground motion records. The main value of nonlinear dynamic procedures has the objective to simulate the behaviour of a building structure in detail. 1.4 Main Objectives of this project The main focus of this project is the development of an analytical model that pounding force will present based on the classical impact theory by using parametric study to identify the most important parameters that affecting pounding. Those factors that give arise to that impact force, therefore investigate of the different practical types of structures that pounding can be occurred. The main objective and scope of this study are, to explore the global response of buildings structures when the pounding effects take place under seismic events, therefore to review the main outcomes of the literature and how the impact theory come across to the practical cases. Create a structural modelling and perform a non linear time history analysis on it. Examine the realistic model of pounding that we will create if it satisfies the properties in order for the structure to work. Determine the relative importance of the dynamic characteristics of pounding. Dynamic analysis will be carried out on the model structure to observe the displacement of the structure due to earthquake excitation. When we examine the main structure we are mainly concerned with displacement, velocity and acceleration, the general dynamic behaviour of the structure under the action of dynamic loads such as earthquake lateral loads. For the purpose of the project appropriate computer software will be used for its purposes (e.g. SAP2000). Creation and versatile of the model, accomplishment of the analysis, and checking and breakthrough of the design must be all done through this interface. Graphical displays of the results, including the real-time of time-history displacements will be easily produced by the use of that software. At the end of that modelling analysis by gathering all the necessary and useful outcomes and explored in deep the main parameters derived by this, the conclusion and results of what we have to adopt as engineering before retrofitting a structure. The appropriate structural parameters are the separation gap size between adjacent structures (storey mass, structural stiffness and yield strength etc.), the dynamic behaviour of a damped multi-degree of freedom bridge system separated by an expansion joint, considering the limited width of clearance around a seismically isolated buildings, that pounding can cause high over stresses when the colliding buildings have different height, periods or masses and the isolators in bridge structures are effective in mitigating the induced seismic forces, cable restrainers etc. Engineers should adopt those realistic facts before they construct new structures in order to succeed future sustainability of the structures and avoiding by this the impact phenomenon of pounding. Accomplish to mitigate the phenomenon of pounding in order to prevent future collisions and/or engineering disasters when seismic events occur. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Practical Cases Pounding-impact force generated by earthquakes between different analytical structure models may provoke extensive damage and in general most of the times the result of that force is not pleasant, it may lead the structure to a total collision as it can be seen from different practical cases. Pounding problem is phenomenon that has been observed during earthquakes and in accordance to ground motions, and has been extensively investigated by various researchers that have used a variety of impact analytical models. Because of the importance of what pounding will have as a result of different engineering structures, attracted the attention of several scientists and analyzers? This absorption is a consequence fact of a plenty growing amount of evidence, which can be found in reports and journals, which have been created after dominant exceeding earthquakes. Demonstrating, the power of that certain impact force which may cause considerable damage. The conclusions and results of successive series of various numerical, integrated analytical and experimental studies have been conducted using individual structural models and administering different models of practical cases confirm that pounding, due to constraining additional impact forces, may result in damage as well as significantly increase the structural response. Moreover, there are many practical case histories of engineered buildings with different dynamic properties and characteristics, which have been constructed under the old earthquake resistant design codes. Analogous conditions concern also bridge constructions. When a structure is under earthquake vibrations will move according to ground motions. These vibrations can be entirely exaggerated, creating at the same time stresses and deformations throughout the structure. Evaluation of methods can be carry out in engineering practise to estimate the parameters that give a rise to pounding. The accuracy and the ability of computational appliance have increased a lot this century by helping us evaluate the seismic structural response of structure, a variety of softwares computing programs have been designed for those purposes, and can accomplished to calculate the dynamic seismic response of a structure which help engineers mitigate pounding effects in structure by avoiding future disaster s . Linear and nonlinear models are realistic pounding models that have been used for studying the performance of a structural system under the mode of structural pounding effect under seismic events. Significance to notice in seismically active areas the serious hazard that pounding can cause and in what practical cases does it occurs by review of some critical and enlightened journals and reports, according to history performance of an exceeding major earthquakes. Also a time history analysis is a dynamic tool for the investigation of a structural seismic enforcement. Because of all the above reasons, investigations have been carried out on pounding mitigation in order to improve the seismic response. 2.1.1 Linear and non-linear pounding of structural systems Pantellides and Ma [13] examined by experimental procedures, the dynamic response of a damped single degree-of-freedom structural model during a seismic event. They analysed the structural behaviour of SDF with both elastic and inelastic structural impact response by using realistic parameters for the pounding model in numerical calculations of the earthquake response. The method of analysis that they used can be used to examine pounding in both buildings and bridges. In order to accomplished to evaluate the effects that concerning pounding force during earthquake in structures, they made a comparison between linear and non-linear models. In the non-linear pounding model they produced results that showed the one-sided pounding model produces more dangerous effects than the two-sided. In their analysis they derived a mathematical equation that concerns the impact force effects in order to represent pounding model for both elastic and inelastic structures. A realistic pounding element was used for this studying and numerical simulations have demonstrated that pounding impact behaviour is not responsive to the values of the stiffness parameter. Furthermore, their experimental results for both elastic and inelastic structures in order to balance damping levels have showed that the higher deformation occurred in the elastic model. According to some observations that have been made the values of pounding force is relatively small in the inelastic structures in comparison to the elastic structures. The value codes of moderate the damping levels are controlled as compared to the actual seismic separation gap size found through the analysis of SDF structural model. The value of seismic gap is decreased considerably as the damping capacity of the pounding structural model is increased. Jankowski [14], addressed to an extent of a non-linear modelling due of earthquake that generated pounding of structural buildings, by deriving the essential fundamental mathematical expressions, involving the function and the applications of the non-linear analysis. By analysing various earthquake records, he derived appropriate mathematical expressions showing the limitation and the feasibility of a non-linear model, in anticipating values for a seismic pounding gap size as well as values for mass, elastic stiffness and damping coefficients between buildings. In his analysis of two inadequately separated buildings with different dynamic characteristics, modelled by elastoplastic multi-degree-of-freedom lumped mass models are used to simulate the functioning structural behaviour and non-linear viscoelastic impact specificity elements are applied to a model collision. The results of the study demonstrate that pounding has an indicative impact on the behaviour of structural buildings, and furthermore the results that he derived confirm the performance of the non-linear, viscoelastic model which endures to simulate the pounding phenomenon more accurately. 2.1.2 Seismic Pounding Effects between adjacent buildings In these last decades, the pounding phenomenon between closely spaced building structures can be a serious hazard especially in seismically active areas with strong ground motion. Because of that critical fact a beneficial awareness of pounding response on engineer structures and numerical formulas for calculating building separation gap size based on linear or analogous linear methods have been introduced. Abdel Raheem [14] established and achieved a tool for the inelastic analysis of seismic pounding effect between buildings. He carried out a parametric study on buildings pounding response as well as proper seismic hazard mitigation practice for adjacent buildings. Three categories of recorded earthquake excitation were used for input. He studied the effect of impact using linear and nonlinear contact force model for different separation distances and compared with nominal model without pounding consideration. Therefore the results of these studies lean on the stimulation characteristics and the relationship between the buildings fundamental period. Furthermore because pounding produces acceleration and shear in various story levels that are greater than those from the no pounding case. Westermo [16] suggested, in order improving the earthquake response of structures without adequate in-between space of the structures, to linking buildings by beams, which can carry the forces between the structures and thus annihilating collisions. Anagnostopoulos [6] analysed the effect of pounding for buildings under strong ground motions by a simplified single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) model. Miller and Fatemi [17] explored in to an extent the phenomenon of pounding-impact force, of adjacent buildings subjected to harmonic motions by the vibroimpact concept. Maison and Kasai [18] modelled the buildings as multiple-degree-of-freedom systems and analysed the response of structural pounding with different types of idealizations. Papadrakakis et al. [19] studied the pounding response of two or more close separated buildings based on the Lagrange multiplier approach by which the geometric compatibility conditions due to proximity are constrained. A three-dimensional model developed for the simulation of the pounding behaviour of adjacent buildings is presented by Papadrakakis et al. [20]. In the evaluation of building separation, Jeng et al. [18] estimated the minimum separation distance required to avoid pounding of adjacent buildings by the spectral difference (SPD) method. Kasai et al. [4] extended Jengs results and proposed a simplified rule to predict the inelastic vibration phase of buildings based on the numerical results of dynamic time-history analyses. Anagnostopoulos and Spiliopoulos [7] examined the behaviour of common pounding between adjacent buildings in city blocks to several strong earthquakes. In the study, the buildings were idealized as lumped-mass, shear beam type, multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) systems with bilinear force deformation characteristics and with bases supported on translational and rocking spring dashpots. Collisions between adjacent masses can occur at any level and are simulated by means of viscoelastic impact elements. They used five real earthquake motions to study the effects of the following factors: building configuration and relative size, seismic separation distance and impact element properties. It was found that pounding can cause high over stresses, mainly when the colliding buildings have significantly different heights, periods or masses. They suggest a possibility for introducing a set of conditions into the codes, combined with some special measures, as an alternative to the seismic separati on requirement. Figure 2.1.2-2 on the left there is a finite element mathematical model and on the right shows the elevation view of a 2 different height building with the separation gap size [14] Abdel Raheem 2006; 2.1.3 SEISMIC POUNDING EFFECT AND RESTRAINERS ON SEISMIC RESPONCE OF MULTIPLE-FRAME BRIDGES DesRoches and Muthukumar [22] used analytical illustrations to check out, the factors and the parameters affecting the worldwide reaction and behaviour of a multiple-frame bridge as a result of pounding of adjacent frames. They have conducted parameter studies of one-sided and two-sided pounding, to dispose the effects of frame stiffness ratio, ground motion characteristics, frame yielding, and restrainers on the pounding behaviour of bridge frames. They showed that the addition of restrainers has a minor effect on the one-sided pounding response of highly out-of-phase frames. It is determined that the most important parameters are the frame period ratio and the characteristic period of the ground motion. The current study explores the effect that pounding impact-force and restrainers have on the worldwide appeal of bridge frames in a multi-frame bridge. They used investigations of two-sided pounding using MDOF models, which showed a favourable post impact response for the flexible f rame and a detrimental effect for the stiff frame demand, for all period ratios. The results from both one-sided and two-sided impact reveal that the response of bridge frames due to pounding, irrespective of the ground motion period ratio, thus validating the recommendations suggested by Caltrans. Current recommendations by Caltrans for limitations in frame period ratios to reduce the effects of pounding are evaluated through an example case. The effect of restrainers on the pounding response of bridge frames is evaluated. The results show that restrainers have very little effect on the demands on bridge frames compared with pounding. 2.1.4 GIRDER POUNDING ON BRIDGES Hao and Chouw [23] introduced a new design principle for anticipating